一、掌握文章的組織結(jié)構(gòu)

　　文章和段落在長度上有明顯不同，但是在結(jié)構(gòu)上是非常相似的。段落通常由一個(gè)主題句引出，接著是一系列說明主題句的細(xì)節(jié)，最后是結(jié)尾句。同樣，文章是由篇首段、主體段和結(jié)論段三部分組成。引言段揭示主題，正文部分對(duì)主題分點(diǎn)闡述，結(jié)論段對(duì)全文歸納總結(jié)。同時(shí)，無論文章還是段落都要遵循一致性和連貫性的原則。可以說，文章是段落的擴(kuò)展， 段落是文章的縮影。

　　1.篇首段目的在于揭示主題，也就是說，引出文中要討論的核心問題，從而起到統(tǒng)領(lǐng)全文的作用。通常，篇首段由引語句和中心思想句兩部分組成。前者目的是引起讀者的興趣，同時(shí)使讀者對(duì)文章要討論的問題在心理上有所準(zhǔn)備。后者向讀者交待該文的主題或?qū)懽髂康摹？傊锥蔚淖饔镁褪鞘棺x者順利地進(jìn)入正文。

　　2.主體段一般由若干段落組成，它們從不同的側(cè)面對(duì)文章的主題展開討論。各段闡述的內(nèi)容必須與主題一致，有助于說明中心思想，但是只涉及主題的一個(gè)方面。

　　3.結(jié)尾段概括全文的內(nèi)容，使讀者對(duì)全文有一個(gè)完整、清晰的認(rèn)識(shí)。它往往使用不同的話重新闡述中心思想，從而與篇首段相呼應(yīng)。

　　二、掌握段落的組織與發(fā)展方式

　　段落的組織結(jié)構(gòu)

　　段落是若干相關(guān)句子圍繞一個(gè)中心思想或?yàn)楸磉_(dá)一個(gè)統(tǒng)一的主題而組合在一起的寫作單位。一般而言，段落結(jié)構(gòu)的組織有如下四種方式：

　　1.演繹型：即段落開頭先給一個(gè)General statements，之后為Specific sentences。這種段落組織模式最為常見，而且多應(yīng)用于說明、解釋類主題結(jié)構(gòu)的文章中。

　　2.匹配型：段落的發(fā)展主線為兩種事物之間的類比，可以是兩種事物各自優(yōu)缺點(diǎn)的一一對(duì)應(yīng)，也可以是先介紹完一個(gè)事物，再接著介紹另一個(gè)事物。這種結(jié)構(gòu)多用于比較類主題結(jié)構(gòu)的文章中。

　　3.假設(shè)真實(shí)型：即作者先提出一種普遍認(rèn)可或某些人認(rèn)可的主張和觀點(diǎn)，然后進(jìn)行澄清，說明自己的主張和觀點(diǎn)，或者說提出反主張或真實(shí)情況。這種組織結(jié)構(gòu)常見于反駁類主題結(jié)構(gòu)的文章中。

　　4.問題解決型：首先陳述文章背景，在該背景下問題提出，然后給出問題的解決方法或?qū)υ搯栴}的反應(yīng)，最后評(píng)估該方法。該模式常用于科學(xué)論文和資訊報(bào)道主題結(jié)構(gòu)的文章中。

　　段落的發(fā)展模式

　　1.等級(jí)型發(fā)展：即段內(nèi)句際關(guān)系之間存在下定義、比較或?qū)Ρ取w類或列舉關(guān)系。

　　2.線型發(fā)展：以時(shí)間為順序，常見于記敘文，表示時(shí)態(tài)的詞貫穿主線。

　　段落各句之間以因果關(guān)系為主線發(fā)展。

　　以事物或事件的發(fā)展過程為主線，多見于說明文。

　　段落的組成

　　段落一般由主題句或過渡句、擴(kuò)展句、細(xì)節(jié)句組成。主題句是段落的靈魂，是為整篇文章的中心服務(wù)的，因此每個(gè)段落要么有自己的主題句，要么本身沒有主題句，但它是為上文或下文的主題句服務(wù)的，以表明文章的大意;過渡句在文章中起承上啟下的作用，一般有順接關(guān)系和轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系;擴(kuò)展句是用具體的事實(shí)去擴(kuò)展、證明或支持前面主題句的句子;細(xì)節(jié)句的存在形式和擴(kuò)展句相似，只是它是為后面的主題句服務(wù)的。

　　段落是文章的組成部分，它從某一方面闡述、說明整篇文章的主題。好的段落應(yīng)清晰地、有條理地、有依據(jù)地表述一個(gè)中心思想。具體來說，好的段落具備以下三個(gè)要素：

　　1.中心突出

　　段落中心突出會(huì)給讀者一目了然的感覺，否則就會(huì)顯得雜亂無章。突出段落中心的一個(gè)重要手段就是主題句。主題句通常置于段落之首，這符合英語的語篇思維特征，先采用主題句開門見山地?cái)[出問題，隨之輔以細(xì)說。其作用是便于讀者迅速把握主題，抓住段落的中心思想。當(dāng)然，也有段落主題句設(shè)在段尾，相當(dāng)于對(duì)上文的總結(jié)，考生應(yīng)該能夠辨明。

　　2.思想上保持一致

　　主題句確立后，還要注意說明、解釋主題句的內(nèi)容是否與主題相符。總之，一個(gè)段落只能有一個(gè)中心，段落中所有內(nèi)容都必須圍繞這一中心展開。

　　3.內(nèi)容上連貫

　　連貫的段落結(jié)構(gòu)清晰，邏輯性強(qiáng)，過渡自然，使讀者容易跟上作者的思路去理解其意圖。

　　當(dāng)然，做閱讀理解Part B部分時(shí)還要考慮段際關(guān)系，即段落與段落之間的關(guān)系。段際關(guān)系可能是順接關(guān)系、轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系、例證關(guān)系或?qū)Ρ扰c對(duì)照關(guān)系。段際關(guān)系的理解是理解過渡句使用的前提條件。還有一種特殊的段際關(guān)系，即過渡關(guān)系，兩個(gè)段落之間有一個(gè)過渡段起承上啟下的作用。

　　三、了解常見的句際關(guān)系及語篇標(biāo)識(shí)詞

　　句際關(guān)系主要是考察空白處與前后句子之間的邏輯關(guān)系。句子與句子之間的關(guān)系可能是顯性的，也可能是隱性的。顯性的句際關(guān)系有明顯的標(biāo)志詞出現(xiàn)，這會(huì)給考生理解文章的發(fā)展脈絡(luò)帶來很大方便。句際關(guān)系主要有以下幾種：

　　1.順接關(guān)系：后句是前句的延續(xù)或補(bǔ)充，標(biāo)識(shí)詞主要有then, after that, furthermore, also, when等。2.轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系：前后兩句意思相反，標(biāo)識(shí)詞通常有but, however, nevertheless, though, in fact等。3.例證關(guān)系：即論據(jù)對(duì)于論點(diǎn)的論證關(guān)系。典型標(biāo)識(shí)詞是for example, for instance， take...as an example等。4.因果關(guān)系：前因后果，或前果后因。可能出現(xiàn)的標(biāo)識(shí)詞有for, as a result, as a consequence, consequently, therefore, accordingly等。5.對(duì)比、對(duì)照關(guān)系：對(duì)比關(guān)系說明前后內(nèi)容的相同之處，可能出現(xiàn)similarly, like等標(biāo)志詞;對(duì)照關(guān)系則說明前后內(nèi)容的不同之處，標(biāo)識(shí)詞通常有as a contrast, on the contrary, on the one hand...on the other hand等。

　　四、理解文章中詞匯的語義特征

　　上文提到了從整體把握文章的命脈;另外，文章中的某些關(guān)鍵詞也能為考生提供線索。在選擇時(shí)，盡量往這些關(guān)鍵詞上靠，可以避免離題太遠(yuǎn)。以下三類詞的作用不容忽視：

　　名詞表主題 When it comes to the slowing economy, Ellen Spero isnt biting her nails just yet. But the 47?year?old manicurist isnt cutting, filing or polishing as many nails as shed like to, either. Most of her clients spend $12 to $50 weekly, but last month two longtime customers suddenly stopped showing up. Spero blames the softening economy. Im a good economic indicator, she says. I provide a service that people can do without when theyre concerned about saving some dollars. So Spero is downscaling, shopping at middle? brow Dillards department store near her suburban Cleveland home, instead of Neiman Marcus. I dont know if other clients are going to abandon me, too, she says.文中的這些名詞為考生提供了一條主線，即使沒完全讀懂，但通過這些名詞考生也可以確定這是一篇與經(jīng)濟(jì)有關(guān)的文章，每句話都沒離開這個(gè)主題。可以設(shè)想一下，如果把其中的任何一句刪去，然后讓考生選擇后補(bǔ)上，在遵循以經(jīng)濟(jì)為線索的前提下都是很容易解決的。也就是說這些名詞表明了這篇文章的主題。

　　動(dòng)詞表變化 All of this caused a crisis of confidence. Americans stopped taking prosperity for granted. They began to believe that their way of doing business was failing, and that their incomes would therefore shortly begin to fall as well. The mid?1980s brought one inquiry after another into the causes of Americas industrial decline. Their sometimes sensational findings were filled with warnings about the growing competition from overseas.動(dòng)詞是各種變化最明顯的體現(xiàn)，它可以表明文中所述情況的變化、作者態(tài)度的變化以及情感的變化等。本段文字中，先不看其它文字，只看這些關(guān)鍵的動(dòng)詞caused、stopped、began to believe、begin to fall、decline就可以表明這是一種由好到壞或由壞到好的變化，再結(jié)合其他部分可以更加肯定這一點(diǎn)，因?yàn)槲闹兴稣顷P(guān)于美國經(jīng)濟(jì)引發(fā)的一場(chǎng)信任危機(jī)，以及這場(chǎng)危機(jī)給人們帶來的情感及經(jīng)濟(jì)方面的變化。

　　形容詞表態(tài)度 Even before Alan Greenspans admission that Americas red? hot economy is cooling, lots of working folks had already seen signs of the slowdown themselves. From car dealerships to Gap outlets, sales have been lagging for months as shoppers temper their spending. For retailers, who last year took in 24 percent of their revenue between Thanksgiving and Christmas, the cautious approach is coming at a crucial time. Already, experts say, holiday sales are off 7 percent from last years pace. But dont sound any alarms just yet. Consumers seem only mildly concerned, not panicked, and many say they remain optimistic about the economys long ?term prospects even as they do some modest belt tightening .在閱讀理解Part A部分經(jīng)常會(huì)遇到表明作者態(tài)度的題，同樣，在Part B部分如果能明確把握作者的態(tài)度對(duì)解題也是很關(guān)鍵的，而形容詞是最能體現(xiàn)作者態(tài)度的關(guān)鍵詞。以此段為例，前半部分都是關(guān)于美國經(jīng)濟(jì)不景氣的描述，如果只看到這些，一定會(huì)認(rèn)為下文也應(yīng)該是一些消極方面的描述。但其實(shí)本段的關(guān)鍵在后面，消費(fèi)者的only mildly concerned和not panicked以及最明顯的一個(gè)形容詞optimistic都與前面的情況形成鮮明的對(duì)比，表明了作者的態(tài)度。如果在此段后設(shè)題進(jìn)行選擇，考生就不得不考慮這些因素了。

　　五、掌握詞匯和語法的銜接

　　詞匯或語法銜接指篇章中通過語法手段或不同的詞匯形式以達(dá)到語義上的銜接連貫，這種聯(lián)系表現(xiàn)為以下幾種：

　　重復(fù)：1.原詞的重復(fù)，又叫原詞復(fù)現(xiàn)，指同一主題詞或關(guān)鍵詞的重復(fù)出現(xiàn)。2.同義或近義詞的銜接，又叫同義復(fù)現(xiàn)，指同義詞、近義詞重復(fù)出現(xiàn)在語篇中，語篇中的句子通過這種關(guān)系達(dá)到了相互銜接。坐標(biāo)詞與下義詞的銜接，上坐標(biāo)詞是指那些意義較概括的詞，它們的詞義包括了下義詞的詞義，如bird就是swallow的上坐標(biāo)詞。上坐標(biāo)詞與下義詞在語篇中相互銜接。

　　共現(xiàn)：又叫搭配性銜接，意指一系列相關(guān)的詞項(xiàng)在篇章中的經(jīng)常共現(xiàn)。搭配性銜接對(duì)語言信息的生成和解釋均有一定的指導(dǎo)作用，有助于對(duì)篇章的潛在的語義演進(jìn)做出預(yù)測(cè)和推測(cè)。

　　替代：語篇中的代詞構(gòu)成了替代銜接關(guān)系，一般而言，one指代前面的單數(shù)可數(shù)名詞;that指代前面的不可數(shù)名詞或句子;this指代前面的單數(shù)名詞或句子;it指代前面的單數(shù)名詞或整個(gè)句子;they或them指代前面的復(fù)數(shù)名詞。

　　結(jié)合前面所講的必備知識(shí)及解題策略進(jìn)一步分析2006年考研大綱中提供的樣題，具體掌握解題思路與策略應(yīng)用。

　　Directions: In the following text, some sentences have been removed. For Questions 4145, choose the most suitable one from the list AG to fit into each of the numbered blank. There are two extra choices, which do not fit in any of the gaps. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1.

　　Long before Man lived on the Earth, there were fishes, reptiles, birds, insects, and some mammals. Although some of these animals were ancestors of kinds living today, others are now extinct, that is, they have no descendants alive now.

　　(41)_______. Very occasionally the rocks show impression of skin, so that, apart from color, we can build up a reasonably accurate picture of an animal that died millions of years ago. The kind of rock in which the remains are found tells us much about the nature of the original land, often of the plants that grew on it, and even of its climate.

　　(42)_______.Nearly all of the fossils that we know were preserved in rocks formed by water action, and most of these are of animals that lived in or near water. Thus it follows that there must be many kinds of mammals, birds, and insects, of which we know nothing.

　　(43)_______.There were also crablike creatures, whose bodies were covered with a horny substance. The body segments each had two pairs of legs, one pair for walking on the sandy bottom, the other for swimming. The head was a kind of shield with a pair of compound eyes, often with thousands of lenses. They were usually an inch or two long but some were 2 feet.

　　(44)_______. Of these, the ammonites are very interesting and important. They have a shell composed of many chambers, each representing a temporary home of the animal. As the young grew larger it grew a new chamber and sealed off the previous one. Thousands of these can be seen in the rocks on the Dorset Coast.

　　(45)_______.About 75 million years ago the Age of Reptiles was over and most of the groups died out. The mammals quickly developed, and we can trace the evolution of many familiar animals such as the elephant and horse. Many of the later mammals, though now extinct, were known to primitive man and were featured by him in cave paintings and on bone carvings.

　　[A]The shell gush have a long history in the rock and many different kinds are known.

　　[B]Nevertheless, we know a great deal about many of them because their bones and shells have been preserved in the rocks as fossils. From them we can tell their size and shape, how they walked, the kind of food they ate.

　　[C]The first animals with true backbones were the fishes, first known in the rocks of 375 million years ago. About 300 million years ago the amphibians, the animals able to live both on land and in water, appeared. They were giant, sometimes 8 feet long, and many of them lived in the swampy pools in which our coal seam, or layer, or formed. The amphibians gave rise to the reptiles and for nearly 150 million years these were the principal forms of life on land, in the sea, and in the air.

　　[D]The best index fossils tend to be marine creatures. These animals evolved rapidly and spread over large areas of the world.

　　[E]The earliest animals whose remains have been found were all very simple kinds and lived in the sea. Later forms are more complex, and among these are the sallies , relations of the starfishes, which had long arms and were attached by a long stalk to the sea bed, or to rocks.

　　[F]When an animal dies the body, its bones, or shell, may often be carried away by streams into lakes or the sea and there get covered up by mud. If the animal lived in the sea its body would probably sink and be covered with mud. More and more mud would fall upon it until the bones or shell become embedded and preserved

　　[G]Many factors can influence how fossils are preserved in rocks. Remains of an organism may be replaced by minerals, dissolved by an acidic solution to leave only their impression, or simply reduced to a more stable form.

　　41.【解析】選[B]。本題主要通過句組關(guān)系的理解來解答。跳過空格閱讀第一段可以看出，本段主要講述了史前動(dòng)物的存在、部分種類的滅絕以及從化石中我們所能發(fā)現(xiàn)的數(shù)百萬年前就死掉了的動(dòng)物的精確印記和當(dāng)時(shí)的地貌及氣候特征。由此，我們就看到了空格前后兩個(gè)句組所敘述內(nèi)容之間的矛盾和內(nèi)容上的不足：1)既然已經(jīng)滅絕，怎么還能了解有關(guān)的這一切呢?說明空格前的句子與其空格所在的句子之間具有轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系。2)空格后第一句中the rocks指的又是什么石頭呢?需要在前有所提及，即正確選項(xiàng)中應(yīng)包含有rock這個(gè)詞。能夠同時(shí)滿足這兩個(gè)條件的只有選項(xiàng)[B]。[A]、[E]、[G]中也提到了rock，但在句際關(guān)系上與前后句組不相吻合，故不正確。所以正確答案只能是[B]。

　　42.【解析】選[F]。文章第一段說明了化石是我們研究史前動(dòng)物的主要依據(jù)，而本段則主要說明了這些化石的形成。空格后幾乎我們所知的所有化石都是在由于水作用而形成的巖石中保存下來的 一句是一個(gè)結(jié)論性表述，之前應(yīng)有水作用形成的巖石這一過程的細(xì)節(jié)描述。[F]的內(nèi)容正好說明死去動(dòng)物的尸體是如何被水和泥沙保存下來的，與此恰相吻合，所以選[F]。此題極易錯(cuò)選[G]，因?yàn)閇G]一開始就有how fossils are preserved，后面又出現(xiàn)了impression一詞，在用詞上出現(xiàn)明顯的復(fù)現(xiàn)現(xiàn)象。 但是[G]后面講的是動(dòng)物遺體上的有機(jī)組織organism可能轉(zhuǎn)化成的幾種形式，這與下文的內(nèi)容不相吻合，故不選[G]。

　　43.【解析】選[E]。本題選擇的線索有兩條：1)空格后有There were also crablike creatures...，說明空白處應(yīng)有關(guān)于另一類動(dòng)物的內(nèi)容;2) 從本段開始，文章轉(zhuǎn)向討論由低級(jí)向高級(jí)進(jìn)化中的動(dòng)物。[E]開始的部分是The earliest animals whose remains have been found...，符合文章寫作的順序。[B]與上文相符，但與下文不符，且與全文結(jié)構(gòu)不相吻合。

　　44.【解析】選[A]。從上一段和本段的 段際關(guān)系來看，兩段屬于順接關(guān)系，即兩段在相繼描述兩種不同層級(jí)、不同種類的史前動(dòng)物。從段落結(jié)構(gòu)上來看，兩段的開頭句都是其主題句，下文接著展開進(jìn)行細(xì)節(jié)描述。特別是本段空格后的Of these, ...，標(biāo)志著空格后一句是空格所在句的拓展句。既然下文一開始就有Of these, ...，空白部分就應(yīng)該有some，several，many或類似的詞;再者，此段中關(guān)于the ammonites的描述，主要闡述了其shell的構(gòu)造，由此說明shell是其主要特征，故在 總類的描述中應(yīng)該含有shell一詞，這就不難判斷答案只能是[A]了。